AGRICULTURE to AHASUERUS
Contents
AGRICULTURE
Tilling the ground (Gen. 2:15; 4:2, 3, 12) and rearing cattle were the chief employments in ancient times. The Egyptians excelled in agriculture.
And after the Israelites entered into the possession of the Promised Land, their circumstances favoured in the highest degree a remarkable development of this art. Agriculture became indeed the basis of the Mosaic commonwealth.
The year in Palestine was divided into six agricultural periods:-
I. SOWING TIME. Tisri, latter half (beginning about the autumnal equinox.) Marchesvan. Kisleu, former half. Early rain due = first showers of autumn.
II. UNRIPE TIME. Kisleu, latter half. Tebet. Sebat, former half.
III. COLD SEASON. Sebat, latter half. Adar. [Veadar.] Nisan, former half. Latter rain due (Deut. 11:14; Jer. 5:24; Hos. 6:3; Zech. 10:1; James 5:7; Job 29:23).
IV. HARVEST TIME. Nisan, latter half. (Beginning about vernal equinox. Barley green. Passover.) Ijar. Sivan, former half., Wheat ripe. Pentecost.
V. SUMMER (total absence of rain) Sivan, latter half. Tammuz. Ab, former half.
VI. SULTRY SEASON Ab, latter half. Elul. Tisri, former half., Ingathering of fruits.
The six months from the middle of Tisri to the middle of Nisan were occupied with the work of cultivation, and the rest of the year mainly with the gathering in of the fruits. The extensive and easily-arranged system of irrigation from the rills and streams from the mountains made the soil in every part of Palestine richly productive (Ps. 1:3; 65:10; Prov. 21:1; Isa. 30:25; 32:2, 20; Hos. 12:11), and the appliances of careful cultivation and of manure increased its fertility to such an extent that in the days of Solomon, when there was an abundant population, "20,000 measures of wheat year by year" were sent to Hiram in exchange for timber (1 Kings 5:11), and in large quantities also wheat was sent to the Tyrians for the merchandise in which they traded (Ezek. 27:17).
The wheat sometimes produced an hundredfold (Gen. 26:12; Matt. 13:23).
Figs and pomegranates were very plentiful (Num. 13:23), and the vine and the olive grew luxuriantly and produced abundant fruit (Deut. 33:24).
Lest the productiveness of the soil should be exhausted, it was enjoined that the whole land should rest every seventh year, when all agricultural labour would entirely cease (Lev. 25:1-7; Deut. 15:1-10).
It was forbidden to sow a field with divers seeds (Deut. 22:9). A passer-by was at liberty to eat any quantity of corn or grapes, but he was not permitted to carry away any (Deut. 23:24, 25; Matt. 12:1). The poor were permitted to claim the corners of the fields and the gleanings. A forgotten sheaf in the field was to be left also for the poor. (See Lev. 19:9, 10; Deut. 24:19.)
Agricultural implements and operations.
The sculptured monuments and painted tombs of Egypt and Assyria throw much light on this subject, and on the general operations of agriculture. Ploughs of a simple construction were known in the time of Moses (Deut. 22:10; comp. Job 1:14). They were very light, and required great attention to keep them in the ground (Luke 9:62).
They were drawn by oxen (Job 1:14), cows (1 Sam. 6:7), and asses (Isa. 30:24); but an ox and an ass must not be yoked together in the same plough (Deut. 22:10). Men sometimes followed the plough with a hoe to break the clods (Isa. 28:24). The oxen were urged on by a "goad," or long staff pointed at the end, so that if occasion arose it could be used as a spear also (Judg. 3:31; 1 Sam. 13:21).
When the soil was prepared, the seed was sown broadcast over the field (Matt. 13:3-8). The "harrow" mentioned in Job 39:10 was not used to cover the seeds, but to break the clods, being little more than a thick block of wood. In highly irrigated spots the seed was trampled in by cattle (Isa. 32:20); but doubtless there was some kind of harrow also for covering in the seed scattered in the furrows of the field.
The reaping of the corn was performed either by pulling it up by the roots, or cutting it with a species of sickle, according to circumstances. The corn when cut was generally put up in sheaves (Gen. 37:7; Lev. 23:10-15; Ruth 2:7, 15; Job 24:10; Jer. 9:22; Micah 4:12), which were afterwards gathered to the threshing-floor or stored in barns (Matt. 6:26).
The process of threshing was performed generally by spreading the sheaves on the threshing-floor and causing oxen and cattle to tread repeatedly over them (Deut. 25:4; Isa. 28:28). On occasions flails or sticks were used for this purpose (Ruth 2:17; Isa. 28:27). There was also a "threshing instrument" (Isa. 41:15; Amos 1:3) which was drawn over the corn. It was called by the Hebrews a moreg, a threshing roller or sledge (2 Sam. 24:22; 1 Chr. 21:23; Isa. 3:15). It was somewhat like the Roman tribulum, or threshing instrument.
When the grain was threshed, it was winnowed by being thrown up against the wind (Jer. 4:11), and afterwards tossed with wooden scoops (Isa. 30:24). The shovel and the fan for winnowing are mentioned in Ps. 35:5, Job 21:18, Isa. 17:13. The refuse of straw and chaff was burned (Isa. 5:24). Freed from impurities, the grain was then laid up in granaries till used (Deut. 28:8; Prov. 3:10; Matt. 6:26; 13:30; Luke 12:18).
Divine institution of Gen 2:15; Gen 3:19, Gen 3:23
Practiced by Cain Gen 4:2
Practiced by Noah Gen 9:20
Practiced by Elisha 1 Kings 19:19
Practiced by David 1 Chr 27:26-31
Practiced by Uzziah 2 Chr 26:10
Practiced by Solomon Eccl 2:4-6
God to be acknowledged in Jer 5:24; Hosea 2:8
Requires wisdom Isa 28:26
Requires diligence Prov 27:23, Prov 27:27; Eccl 11:6
Requires patience James 5:7
Requires toil 2 Tim 2:6
Persons engaged in, called husbandmen 2 Chr 26:10
Called laborers Matt 9:37 Called tiller of the ground Gen 4:2
Planters of vineyards, exempted from military service Deut 20:6
Fruits blasted because of sin Isa 5:10; Isa 7:23; Jer 12:13; Joel 1:10-11
LAWS CONCERNING Exo 20:9; Exo 22:5-6; Exo 23:10-12; Lev 19:9-10, Exo 34:21-22; Lev 19:19, Lev 19:23-25; Lev 25:2-12, Lev 25:15-16, Lev 25:19-28; Deut 5:13-14; Deut 22:9-10; Deut 23:24-25; Deut 24:19-21; Prov 3:9-10; Ec 5:9; Prov 27:23-27; Matt 12:1
FACTS ABOUT Gen 8:22; 1 Sam 13:19-21; Isa 28:24-28; Matt 13:3-8; 2 Cor 9:6; Gal 6:7 .
See HUSBANDMAN
FIGURATIVE Fallow ground Jer 4:3. Sowing wheat, but reaping thorns Jer 12:13. Parable. Of the sower Matt 13:3-8, Matt 13:19-23; Luke 8:5-15. Of the tares Matt 13:24-30, Matt 13:36-43OPERATIONS IN
See CHURNING
See GLEANING
See GRAFTING
See IRRIGATION
See MANURE
See MOWING
See PRUNING
See REAPING
See SOWER
See THRESHING
IMPLEMENTS OF
See AX
See CART
See FAN
See FORK
See GOAD
See HARROW
See MATTOCK
See MILL
See PLOW
See PRUNING-HOOK.
See SHOVEL
See SICKLE
See SIEVE
Provducts OF
See APPLE
See BARLEY
See BUTTER
See CHAFF
See CORN
See CUCUMBER
See DATE
See FIG
See FITCH
See GARLIC
See GOURD
See GRAPE
See HONEY
See LEEK
See MELON
See MILK
See OIL
See ONION
See POMEGRANATE
See RYE
See STUBBLE
See WHEAT
See WINE
ANIMALS OF
See ASS
See CAMEL
See GOAT
See HORSE
See KINE
See MULE
See SHEEP
See SWINE
See also BARN
See FENCE
See GARNER
See VINEYARD
AGRIPPA
the grandson of Herod the Great, and son of Aristobulus and Bernice.
The Roman emperor Caligula made him governor first of the territories of Philip, then of the tetrarchy of Lysanias, with the title of king ("king Herod"), and finally of that of Antipas, who was banished, and of Samaria and Judea.
Thus he became ruler over the whole of Palestine. He was a persecutor of the early Christians. He slew James, and imprisoned Peter (Acts 12:1-4). He died at Caesarea, being "eaten of worms" (Acts 12:23), A.D. 44. (Comp. Josephus, Ant. xix. 8.)
King Acts 25:26
AGRIPPA II.
son of the foregoing, was born at Rome, A.D. 27. He was the brother of Bernice and Drusilla.
The Emperor Claudius (A.D. 48) invested him with the office of superintendent of the Temple of Jerusalem, and made him governor (A.D. 50) of Chalcis.
He was afterwards raised to the rank of king, and made governor over the tetrarchy of Philip and Lysanias (Acts 25:13; 26:2, 7).
It was before him that Paul delivered (A.D. 59) his speech recorded in Acts 26.
His private life was very profligate. He died (the last of his race) at Rome, at the age of about seventy years, A.D. 100.
AGUE
the translation in Lev. 26:16 (R.V., "fever") of the Hebrew word kaddah'ath, meaning "kindling", i.e., an inflammatory or burning fever.
In Deut. 28:22 the word is rendered "fever."
General scriptures concerning Lev 26:16
AGUR
gatherer; the collector, mentioned as author of the sayings in Prov. 30:1 all.
Nothing is known of him beyond what is there recorded.
Ah!
an exclamation of sorrow or regret (Ps. 35:25; Isa. 1:4, 24; Jer. 1:6; 22:18; Mark 15:29).
Aha!
an exclamation of ridicule (Ps. 35:21; 40:15; 70:3).
In Isa. 44:16 it signifies joyful surprise, as also in Job 39:25, R.V.
Son of Jakeh Prov 30:1
AHAB
father's brother.
(1.) The son of Omri, whom he succeeded as the seventh king of Israel. His history is recorded in 1 Kings 16-22. His wife was Jezebel (q.v.), who exercised a very evil influence over him. To the calf-worship introduced by Jeroboam he added the worship of Baal. He was severely admonished by Elijah (q.v.) for his wickedness. His anger was on this account kindled against the prophet, and he sought to kill him.
He undertook three campaigns against Ben-hadad II., king of Damascus. In the first two, which were defensive, he gained a complete victory over Ben-hadad, who fell into his hands, and was afterwards released on the condition of his restoring all the cities of Israel he then held, and granting certain other concessions to Ahab.
After three years of peace, for some cause Ahab renewed war (1 Kings 22:3) with Ben-hadad by assaulting the city of Ramoth-gilead, although the prophet Micaiah warned him that he would not succeed, and that the 400 false prophets who encouraged him were only leading him to his ruin.
Micaiah was imprisoned for thus venturing to dissuade Ahab from his purpose. Ahab went into the battle disguised, that he might if possible escape the notice of his enemies; but an arrow from a bow "drawn at a venture" pierced him, and though stayed up in his chariot for a time he died towards evening, and Elijah's prophecy (1 Kings 21:19) was fulfilled.
He reigned twenty-three years. Because of his idolatry, lust, and covetousness, Ahab is referred to as pre-eminently the type of a wicked king (2 Kings 8:18; 2 Chr. 22:3; Micah 6:16).
(2.) A false prophet referred to by Jeremiah (Jer. 29:21), of whom nothing further is known.
1. King of Israel 1 Kings 16:29
Marries Jezebel 1 Kings 16:31
Idolatry of 1 Kings 16:30-33; 1 Kings 18:18-19; 1 Kings 21:25, 1 Kings 21:26
Other wickedness of 2 Kings 3:2; 2 Chr 21:6; 2 Chr 22:3-4; Mic 6:16
Reproved by Elijah; assembles the Prophets of Baal 1 Kings 18:17-46
Fraudulently confiscates Naboth's vineyard 1 Kings 21:1-29
Defeats Ben-hadad 1 Kings 20:1-43
Closing history and death of 1 Kings 22; 2 Chr 18:1-34
Succeeded by his son, Ahaziah 1 Kings 22:40
Prophecies against 1 Kings 20:42; 1 Kings 21:19-24; 2 Kings 9:8, 1 Kings 22:19-28; 2 Kings 9:25, 2 Kings 9:26
Sons of, murdered 2 Kings 10:1-8
2. A false Provphet Jer 29:21-22
AHARAH
Also called EHI, and AHIRAM, and AHER .Son of Benjamin Gen 46:21; Num 26:38; 1 Chr 7:12; 1 Chr 8:1
AHARHEL
Son of Harum 1 Chr 4:8
AHASAI
A grandson of Immer Neh 11:13
AHASBAI
Father of Eliphelet 2 Sam 23:34
See UR 1 Chr 11:35
AHASUERUS
There are three kings designated by this name in Scripture.
(1.) The father of Darius the Mede, mentioned in Dan. 9:1.
This was probably the Cyaxares I. known by this name in profane history, the king of Media and the conqueror of Nineveh.
(2.) The king mentioned in Ezra 4:6, probably the Cambyses of profane history, the son and successor of Cyrus (B.C. 529).
(3.) The son of Darius Hystaspes, the king named in the Book of Esther.
He ruled over the kingdoms of Persia, Media, and Babylonia, "from India to Ethiopia." This was in all probability the Xerxes of profane history, who succeeded his father Darius (B.C. 485). In the LXX. version of the Book of Esther the name Artaxerxes occurs for Ahasuerus.
He reigned for twenty-one years (B.C. 486-465).
He invaded Greece with an army, it is said, of more than 2,000,000 soldiers, only 5,000 of whom returned with him. Leonidas, with his famous 300, arrested his progress at the Pass of Thermopylae, and then he was defeated disastrously by Themistocles at Salamis. It was after his return from this invasion that Esther was chosen as his queen.
1. King of Persia, history of .
See BOOK OF ESTHER Esther 1:1-22
2. AHASUERUS .
See ARTAXERXES
3. Father of Darius Dan 9:1</p>