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Religion

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No simple definition can describe the numerous religions in the world.

For many people, religion is an organised system of beliefs, ceremonies, practices, and worship that centre on one supreme God, or the Deity. For many others, religion involves a number of gods, or deities. Some people have a religion in which no specific God or gods are worshiped. There are also people who practice their own religious beliefs in their own personal way, largely independent of organised religion. But almost all people who follow some form of religion believe that a divine power created the world and influences their lives.

People practice religion for several reasons.

Many people throughout the world follow a religion simply because it is part of the heritage of their culture, tribe, or family. Religion gives many people a feeling of security because they believe that a divine power watches over them. These people often ask the power for help or protection. Numerous people follow a religion because it promises them salvation and either happiness or the chance to improve themselves in a life after death. For many people, religion brings a sense of individual fulfilment and gives meaning to life. In addition, religion provides answers to such questions as What is the purpose of life? What is the final destiny of a person? What is the difference between right and wrong? and What are one's obligations to other people? Finally, many people follow a religion to enjoy a sense of kinship with their fellow believers.

There are thousands of religions in the world.

The eight major ones are Buddhism, Christianity, Confucianism, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, Shinto, and Taoism. Of these eight religions, Hinduism, Shinto, and Taoism developed over many centuries. Each of the other religions traditionally bases its faith on the life or teachings of specific individuals. They are Prince Siddhartha Gautama, who became known as Gautama Buddha, for Buddhism; Jesus Christ for Christianity; Confucius for Confucianism; Muhammad for Islam; and Abraham and Moses for Judaism.

The religions that trace their history to individuals follow a general pattern of development. During the individual's lifetime or soon after his death, a distinctive system of worship ceremonies grew up around his life and teachings. This system, called a cult, became the basis of the religion. The heart of the cult is the individual's teachings. In addition to inspiring worship, the individual represents an ideal way of life that followers try to imitate.

The teachings of religions have shaped the lives of people since prehistoric times. Judaism, Islam, and especially Christianity have been major influences in the formation of Western culture. These three faiths, particularly Islam, have also played a crucial role in the development of Middle Eastern culture. The cultures of Asia have been shaped by Buddhism, Confucianism, Hinduism, Shinto, and Taoism.

Religion has been a supreme source of inspiration in the arts.

Some of the most beautiful buildings in the world are houses of worship. Much of the world's greatest music is religious. Religious stories have provided countless subjects for paintings, sculptures, literature, dances, and motion pictures.

This article describes the chief characteristics of religion.

It also examines the origin of religion in prehistoric times. In addition, the article describes the organisation of the world's eight major religions and briefly relates the history of each. Many separate World Book articles provide information on topics related to religion. For a list of these articles, see the Related articles at the end of this article.

Chief characteristics of religion

Most of the leading religions throughout history have shared characteristics. The chief characteristics include (1) belief in a deity or in a power beyond the individual, (2) a doctrine (accepted teaching) of salvation, (3) a code of conduct, (4) the use of sacred stories, and (5) religious rituals (acts and ceremonies).

The essential qualities of a religion are maintained and passed from generation to generation by sources, called authority, which the followers accept as sacred. The most important religious authorities are writings known as scriptures. Scriptures include the Bibles of Christians and Jews, the Koran of Muslims, and the Vedas of Hindus. Religious authority also comes from the writings of saints and other holy persons and from decisions by religious councils and leaders. Unwritten customs and laws known as traditions also form a basic part of authority.

Belief in a deity.

There are three main philosophical views regarding the existence of a deity. Atheists believe that no deity exists. Theists believe in a deity or deities. Agnostics say that the existence of a deity cannot be proved or disproved. Most of the major religions are theistic. They teach that deities govern or greatly influence the actions of human beings as well as events in nature. Confucianism is the most important atheistic religion.

Religions that acknowledge only one true God are monotheistic.

Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are examples of monotheistic religions. A religion that has a number of deities is polytheistic. The ancient Greeks and Romans had polytheistic religions. Each of their many gods and goddesses had one or more special areas of influence. For example, Aphrodite was the Greek goddess of love, and Mars was the Roman god of war. In henotheistic religions, the worship of a supreme Deity does not deny the existence and power of other deities. For example, Hinduism teaches that a world spirit called Brahman is the supreme power. But Hindus also serve numerous other gods and goddesses. Many tribes in Africa and the Pacific Islands also worship a supreme power as well as many other deities.

The followers of some religions worship deities that are or were people or that are images of people. The ancient Egyptian people considered their pharaohs to be living gods. Before World War II (1939-1945), the Japanese honoured their emperor as divine. Taoists believe in deities that look and act like human beings. They also worship some deities that were once human beings and became gods or goddesses after death.

Many people worship nature deities-that is, deities that dwell in or control various aspects of nature. The Chinese in particular have worshiped gods of the soil and grain. Followers of Shinto worship kami, spirits that live in nature. Many American Indian tribes worshiped a spirit power, a mysterious, magic force in nature.

A doctrine of salvation.

Among the major religions, Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, and Hinduism teach a doctrine of salvation. They stress that salvation is the highest goal of the faithful and one that all followers should try to achieve. Religions differ, however, in what salvation is and in how it can be gained.

A doctrine of salvation is based on the belief that individuals are in some danger from which they must be saved. The danger may be the threat of physical misfortune in this world, such as a disease. Christianity and several other major religions teach that the danger is spiritual, is centred in each person's soul, and pertains mainly to life after death. If a person is saved, the soul enters a state of eternal happiness, often called heaven. If the person is not saved, the soul may spend eternity in a state of punishment, which is often called hell.

Most religions teach that a person gains salvation by finding release from certain obstacles that block human fulfilment. In Christianity, the obstacles are sin and its effects. In most Asian religions, the obstacles are worldly desires and attachment to worldly things. Salvation in these religions depends on whether believers can free themselves from the obstacles with the aid of a saviour. The saviour may be the individual on whose teachings the religion is based, a god, or some other divine figure. People must accept the saviour. They must also accept certain teachings, perform certain ceremonies, and abide by certain rules of moral conduct-all of which were inspired by the saviour.

Some religions consider salvation to be a gift from the Deity or deities. For example, many Christian denominations believe that individuals are saved by the grace of God and not by their own merit.

Most religions teach that salvation comes only once and is eternal.

According to Buddhism and Hinduism, the soul lives on after the death of the body and is reborn in another body. This cycle of rebirths is called reincarnation. The doctrine of karma is closely related to reincarnation. According to this doctrine, a person's actions, thoughts, and words determine the kind of animal or human body the soul will live in during the next reincarnation. The process of reincarnation continues until, through good deeds and moral conduct, a person finally achieves a state of spiritual perfection, which is salvation. Buddhists call this state nirvana, and Hindus call it moksha.

A code of conduct is a set of moral teachings and values that all religions have in some form. Such a code, or ethic, tells believers how to conduct their lives. It instructs them how to act toward the deity and toward one another. Religious codes of conduct differ in many ways, but most agree on several major themes. For example, they stress some form of the golden rule, which states that believers should treat others as they would like to be treated themselves. A religion's code of conduct also may determine such matters as whom believers may marry, what jobs they may hold, and what kinds of foods they may eat.

The use of sacred stories.

For thousands of years, followers of religions have believed in sacred stories, called myths. Religious leaders often used these stories to dramatise the teachings of their faith.

Originally, people told myths to describe how the sacred powers directly influenced the world. As the stories developed, they showed how some feature or event in the world was indirectly caused by the sacred powers. Many stories described the creation of the world. Others told how the human race or a particular people began. Some of the stories tried to explain the cause of natural occurrences, such as thunderstorms or the changes in seasons.

Today, there are scientific explanations for many of the subjects dealt with in sacred stories. But some religious groups still insist that the stories are true in every detail. Other groups believe only in the message contained in the stories, not in the specific details. Still other religious groups regard sacred stories as symbolic expressions of the ideals and values of their faith.

Religious rituals include the acts and ceremonies by which believers appeal to and serve God, deities, or other sacred powers. Some rituals are performed by individuals alone, and others by groups of worshipers. Important rituals are performed according to a schedule and are repeated regularly. The performance of a ritual is often called a service.

The most common ritual is prayer. Through prayer, a believer or someone on behalf of believers addresses words and thoughts to an object of worship. Prayer includes requests, expressions of thanksgiving, confessions of sins, and praise. Most major religions have a daily schedule of prayer. Meditation, a spiritual exercise much like prayer, is important in Asian religions. Buddhist monks try to be masters of meditation.

Many religions have rituals intended to purify the body.

For example, Hindus consider the waters of the Ganges River in India to be sacred. Every year, millions of Hindus purify their bodies by bathing in the river, especially at the holy city of Varanasi.

In some religions, pilgrimages are significant rituals.

Pilgrimages are journeys to the sites of holy objects or to places credited with miraculous healing powers. Believers also make pilgrimages to sacred places, such as the birthplace or tomb of the founder of their faith. All devout Muslims hope to make a pilgrimage to Mecca, the birthplace of Muhammad.

Many rituals are scheduled at certain times of the day, week, or year. Various religions have services at sunrise, in the morning, at sunset, and in the evening. The different religions have special services to mark the beginning of a new year. Many religions celebrate springtime, harvesttime, and the new or full moon.

Many rituals commemorate events in the history of religions.

For example, the Jewish festival of Passover recalls the meal the Israelites ate just before their departure from slavery in Egypt. Various Christian celebrations of Holy Communion are related to the last meal Jesus shared with His disciples before His death.

Rituals also mark important events in a person's life. Various ceremonies make sacred occasions of birth, marriage, and death. Rituals accept young people into the religion and into religious societies. In Judaism, the ritual of circumcision is performed on male infants. Some Christians baptise babies soon after birth. Other Christians baptise only youths or adults.

How the major religions are organised

The organisation of the world's major religions ranges from simple to complex. Many religions have spiritual leaders, often called the clergy. These leaders have the authority and responsibility to conduct religious services, to advise or command believers, and to govern the religious organisation at various levels. In some religions, the laity--that is, the believers who are not members of the clergy--also have important organisational roles.

In many countries, there is a state (official or favoured) religion. For example, Islam is the state religion of Iran. Lutheranism is the state religion of Sweden, and Buddhism is the state religion of Thailand.

Judaism has no one person as its head.

Each local congregation supervises its own affairs, usually under the leadership of a rabbi. Israel and a few other countries have chief rabbis. These rabbis are scholars who serve as the top judges of religious law.

Christian denominations (groups) are organised in various ways. In the Roman Catholic Church, believers are organised into districts called parishes, which belong to larger districts called dioceses. Dioceses, in turn, belong to provinces. The main diocese in each province is called an archdiocese. Pastors preside over parishes, bishops over dioceses, and archbishops over archdioceses. The pope presides over the entire Roman Catholic Church with the advice and assistance of high officials called cardinals. Some Protestant denominations are governed by similar patterns of hierarchies (levels of authority). Others are governed by boards of the clergy and laity or by local congregations.

Confucianism and Islam have no clergy.

Leadership is provided by scholars who interpret the teachings of the faith. In Shinto and Taoism, the basic organisational unit is the priesthood. In Buddhism, the chief organisational unit is an order of monks called the sangha. The monks serve as advisers and teachers and play a vital part in everyday life in Buddhist countries. In some Buddhist countries, the head of state is also the leader of the national order of monks.

Hinduism has no consistent pattern of organisation. There are no congregations or parishes. Hindus tend to worship individually or in families. Services in temples are performed by the Brahmans, members of the highest Hindu castes (social classes). In some regions, the Brahmans occasionally serve as a kind of royal priesthood.

The origin of religion

The earliest recorded evidence of religious activity dates from only about 60,000 B.C. However, anthropologists and historians of religion believe that some form of religion has been practised since people first appeared on the earth about 2 million years ago.

Experts think prehistoric religions arose out of fear and wonder about natural events, such as the occurrence of storms and earthquakes and the birth of babies and animals. To explain why someone died, people credited supernatural powers greater than themselves or greater than the world around them.

Prehistoric people centred their religious activities on the most important elements of their existence, such as the prosperity of their tribe and getting enough food to survive. They often placed food, ornaments, and tools in graves. They believed that these items would be useful to or desired by dead people. Prehistoric people drew pictures and performed dances that were intended to promote the fertility of women and animals and to ensure good hunting. They also made sacrifices for the same reasons.

Certain scholars have developed theories that attempt to explain how religion began in prehistoric times. No single theory has been accepted by all scholars, but each major theory has contributed to an understanding of the subject. Leading theories were developed by Sir Edward Burnett Tylor, Friedrich Max Muller, and Rudolf Otto.

Tylor's theory. Tylor was a British anthropologist of the 1800's. According to Tylor's theory, early people believed that spirits dwelled in and controlled all things in nature. For example, they thought that spirits lived in such objects or forces as plants, the wind, volcanoes, and the sun. Tylor called the spirits animae, and his theory became known as animism.

Prehistoric people, Tylor said, explained such occurrences as windstorms and the change from day to night as the actions of the spirits. Because many of the objects and forces were impressive or very powerful, people started to worship their spirits. According to Tylor, religion originated in this worship.

Muller's theory. Muller, a German-born language scholar of the 1800's, is often considered the first historian of religion. Muller agreed with Tylor that religion began as spirit worship. But he rejected Tylor's view that the earliest people believed spirits dwelled in nature. Instead, Muller suggested that prehistoric people thought that the forces of nature themselves had human qualities, such as good or bad temper. People thus transformed these forces into deities. In this way, Muller explained the earliest belief in gods.

Otto's theory. Otto was a German scholar of religion of the early 1900's. Otto believed that an awareness of holiness and mystery lies at the heart of religious experience and is therefore the basis for all religions. In his view, all human beings possess the capacity for awe and recognise the power of the sacred. For Otto, the holy is the true, the good, and the beautiful, a representation of a basic and universal aspect of being human.

History of the world's major religions

The eight major religions practised in the world today were either founded or developed their basic form between about 600 B.C. and A.D. 600. The following discussion traces the history of each of these religions.

Judaism began among the ancient Israelites in the Middle East.

Jewish tradition traces the roots of the religion back to Abraham, who lived between about 1800 and 1500 B.C. His grandson Jacob, who was also called Israel, had 12 sons. They founded the 12 tribes that became the Israelites. Over a period of time, many Israelites settled in Egypt, where they eventually became slaves. In the 1200's B.C., the great lawgiver Moses led them out of Egypt to Canaan (Palestine). Jewish tradition also says Moses received from God the first five books of the Bible, which are called the Pentateuch or the Torah. These books, sometimes known as the Mosaic Law, have been the basis of the Jewish religion.

Judaism was the first religion to teach the belief in one God. Some scholars say that the Jews became monotheistic during the time of Moses. But most scholars believe that Jewish prophets (religious teachers and thinkers) converted the Jews to monotheism by about 600 B.C.

During Biblical times, first the Assyrians, then the Babylonians, and finally the Romans conquered the Israelites. Many Jews were driven into exile. Over the centuries, the Jewish people settled in various parts of the Middle East and in European countries. Everywhere, they were always a religious minority, and they were often persecuted for their faith.

After about 1800, Jews divided into three general groups-Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform. Orthodox Jews observed rituals in traditional ways. Conservative and Reform Jews modernised certain practices. Most eastern European Jews followed Orthodox Judaism, and most western European and North American Jews followed Conservative or Reform Judaism.

In the 1930's, the German dictator Adolf Hitler and his Nazi Party began a vicious campaign against Jews. By 1945, the Nazis had killed about 6 million of the 8 million to 9 million Jews in Europe. Many of the survivors joined Jews living in Palestine. Together, they established the state of Israel in 1948 under the sponsorship of the United Nations (UN). It was the first homeland Jews had known since Biblical times.

Hinduism began about 1500 B.C. At that time, a central Asian people called the Aryans invaded and conquered India. The Aryan culture gradually combined with the culture of a native people known as the Dravidians. Hinduism developed from a blend of the two cultures.

The oldest Hindu scriptures are the Vedas.

They were composed over a period of nearly 1,000 years, beginning about 1400 B.C. This stage in Hindu history is often called the Vedic period. During Vedic times, believers worshiped a number of nature deities. At the end of the period, the doctrines of reincarnation and karma were adopted. By the 500's B.C., Hinduism was splitting into various schools of thought. Two of these schools-Buddhism and Jainism-became new religions. The Hindu schools further split into smaller sects. Today, Hinduism includes a great number of schools and sects. Many of the sects were formed by saints or gurus (spiritual teachers). Each sect has its own philosophy and form of worship. But they all accept basic Hindu doctrines. Buddhism developed in India during the late 500's B.C. from the teachings of a prince named Siddhartha Gautama. Gautama became known as Gautama Buddha, meaning Enlightened One. Buddhism was partly a rebellion against certain features of Hinduism. Buddhism opposed the Hindu worship of many deities, the Hindu emphasis on caste and the supernatural, and the power of the Hindu priest class. Buddha taught that people should devote themselves to finding release from the suffering of life. Through this release, people would gain nirvana, a state of perfect peace and happiness. To achieve nirvana, they had to free themselves from all worldly desires and attachments to worldly things. Buddha taught that nirvana could be gained by following the Middle Way between the extremes of severe self-denial and uncontrolled passion. As Buddha preached, he attracted a growing number of followers. By the time of his death, about 483 B.C., Buddhism was firmly established in India.

Buddhism spread into central Asia.

By the end of the A.D. 100's, it had been introduced into China. Buddhism swept through much of China from the 300's to the 500's, challenging the native Chinese religions of Confucianism and Taoism in popularity. In the 500's, Chinese Buddhism spread to Korea and Japan. Buddhism became the chief Japanese religion for the next 1,000 years.

Early in its history, Buddhism divided into two forms, Theravada and Mahayana. Today, Theravada Buddhism is strongest in Burma, Cambodia, Laos, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. Most Mahayana Buddhists live in Japan, Korea, Mongolia, Nepal, Tibet, Vietnam, and scattered parts of India and Russia.

Confucianism is a Chinese religion based on the teachings of Confucius, a philosopher who died about 479 B.C. Confucianism has no organisation or clergy. It does not teach a belief in a deity or in the existence of life after death. Confucianism stresses moral and political ideas. It emphasises respect for ancestors and government authority and teaches that rulers must govern according to high moral standards.

Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism have been the major religions in China. However, Confucianism has had the greatest impact on Chinese society. Confucianism was the state religion of China from the 100's B.C. until the A.D. 1900's. Chinese rulers approved of its emphasis on respect for authority and dedication to public service. Confucian scriptures called the Five Classics and Four Books served as the foundation of the Chinese educational system for centuries. Candidates applying for government jobs had to pass examinations based on these scriptures.

Beginning in the 1000's, a more philosophical approach to Confucianism known as Neo-Confucianism became widely popular. Neo-Confucianism also influenced Japanese moral codes and philosophy from the 1600's through the 1800's.

In 1949, the Chinese Communists gained control of China. The government officially condemned Confucianism, as well as other religions. As a result, most followers lived outside mainland China, especially in Taiwan. In the late 1970's, however, the Communist government relaxed its policy against religion, and so Confucianism has enjoyed a revival on the mainland.

Taoism, like Confucianism, is a native Chinese religion. Its roots go back to the earliest history of China. However, Taoism did not begin to develop as an organised religion until the 100's B.C.

Taoism teaches that everyone should try to achieve two goals, happiness and immortality. The religion has many practices and ceremonies intended to help people. They include prayer, magic, special diets, breath control, meditation, and recitation of scriptures. Taoists also believe in astrology, fortunetelling, witchcraft, and communication with the spirits of the dead.

Taoists worship more deities than do the followers of almost any other religion. Some deities are ancestors, and others are the spirits of famous people.

During its early history, Taoism borrowed heavily from Buddhism. Many Taoist deities, temples, and ceremonies show the influence of Buddhism. By the A.D. 1000's, Taoism had divided into many sects. The members of some of these sects withdrew from everyday life to meditate and study in monasteries. Other sects were based in temples. The temple priests passed their positions on to their children. The members of this hereditary priesthood lived among the common people. They gained a reputation as highly skilled magicians who could tell the future and protect believers from illness, accidents, and other misfortune.

Chinese governments of the early and mid-1900's opposed Taoism, claiming it was based on superstition. Today, the Chinese government permits the practice of the religion and followers are gradually increasing in number. In addition, Taoists remain active in Chinese societies outside China, especially in Taiwan.

Shinto is the native religion of Japan.

According to Shinto mythology, deities created Japan and its people. Until the mid-1900's, the Japanese worshiped their emperor as a direct descendant of Amaterasu-Omikami, the sun goddess and most important Shinto deity.

Shinto developed from native folk beliefs.

Followers worship spirits and demons that live in animals and in mountains, trees, and other parts of nature. In early Japanese history, Shinto was devoted chiefly to this form of nature worship. Beginning in the A.D. 500's, Buddhism influenced the development of Shinto. Confucianism became influential in the A.D. 600's. Both of these religions helped shape Shinto rituals and doctrines. Buddhist and Shinto services have occasionally been held in the same temples. But unlike Buddhism, Shinto never developed strong doctrines on either salvation or life after death.

During the late 1800's, the Japanese government sponsored a form of Shinto called State Shinto. State Shinto stressed patriotic religious ceremonies and the divine origins of the emperor. In 1882, the government officially separated Shinto into State Shinto and Sectarian Shinto. The government administered State Shinto. Sectarian Shinto was popular among the common people. After World War II, the government abolished State Shinto and the doctrine of a divine emperor.

Christianity is based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ.

Most Christians believe God sent Jesus to the world as the Saviour. Christianity teaches that humanity can achieve salvation through Jesus.

After Jesus' Crucifixion, a number of His followers spread His teachings.

One of the most important of these followers was Saint Paul. After Paul's death, about A.D. 67, Christianity continued to grow in spite of persecution by the Romans, whose empire covered most of Europe, the Middle East, and northern Africa. In the early 300's, the Roman emperor Constantine the Great became a Christian. By the late 300's, Christianity was widely practised throughout the empire.

During the Middle Ages, Christian missionaries converted many European barbarian tribes, which led to the Christian church's dominant influence on European life for centuries. For many years, a split had been developing between Christians in western Europe and those in eastern Europe and western Asia. The split finally occurred in the 1000's. The churches in Greece, Russia, and other parts of eastern Europe and western Asia became known as the Eastern Orthodox Churches. The church in western Europe became known as the Roman Catholic Church.

In the 1500's, a religious movement called the Reformation divided western Christianity into several bodies. Most southern Europeans remained Roman Catholics. A great number of northern Europeans, known as Protestants, formed new churches. The largest included the Baptist, Congregationalist, Episcopal, Lutheran, Methodist, and Presbyterian churches.

Beginning in the 1500's, Catholic missionaries converted many people in Africa, Asia, and the Americas to Christianity. Protestant missionaries became active in the 1600's and made converts in the Far East, Africa, and North America.

Islam is based on the life and teachings of the prophet Muhammad, who lived in Arabia during the early A.D. 600's. Before Muhammad's time, the people in the region worshiped Allah (God) as well as other deities. But Muhammad said Allah was the only God.

According to Islamic tradition

Muhammad had the first of several visions about 610. The vision occurred while Muhammad was meditating in a cave on Mount Hira, a hill near his birthplace of Mecca. The vision commanded Muhammad to preach the message of Allah to the people of his country. He began preaching in Mecca. A tribe called the Quraysh controlled Mecca and opposed Muhammad. To avoid persecution by the Quraysh, Muhammad fled to the city of Medina. Muhammad's journey from Mecca to Medina is called the Hegira and is one of the central events in the founding of Islam.

In 630, Muhammad led an army to Mecca.

He offered the people of the city generous peace terms. As a result, his forces were able to take the city with little resistance. He made Mecca the sacred city and centre of Islam.

After Muhammad's death in 632, his friend and disciple Abu Bakr became the first caliph (leader) of Islam. Abu Bakr defeated a rebellion against his rule by Arabian tribes and began a campaign of religious conquest outside Arabia. Succeeding caliphs continued Abu Bakr's conquests. Within 100 years of Muhammad's death, Islam had spread throughout the Middle East, across northern Africa, and into Spain. In 732, Muslim and Christian armies fought a major battle near Tours, France. The Muslims were defeated, and western Europe remained Christian.

Muslim missionaries and traders carried Islam to India and other parts of Asia. From the 1000's to the 1200's, Islam spread into western Africa. Today, Islam is the major religion of nearly all countries in northern Africa and the Middle East. It is also the chief religion in Bangladesh, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Pakistan.

Religion today

Religion in the West has been severely criticised in the 1900's. Numerous critics charge that many religious doctrines have become dry and uninspiring and no longer satisfy spiritual needs. Critics have also claimed that traditional religions fail to deal with current social issues and that they support outdated moral attitudes. Some religious groups have tried to meet society's needs and problems. For example, most religions have traditionally prohibited the ordination of women as clergy and from other leadership positions. For many women, these limitations left their spiritual needs unfulfilled. Many Christian denominations and groups in Judaism now allow women roles equal to those of men.

Many people see the ecumenical movement in Christianity as a positive step toward bringing a spirit of co-operation and renewal to Western religion. The ecumenical movement seeks to unify Christians world-wide. It began in the early 1900's and was almost exclusively confined to Protestantism for many years. Many Protestant groups combined and formed new denominations. In the mid-1900's, the Roman Catholic Church began to take a more active part in the movement. A document issued by Vatican Council II (1962-1965), a meeting of Catholic leaders, endorsed the movement's goals. Leaders of the Eastern Orthodox Churches and the Roman Catholic Church also met during the mid-1900's to investigate ways to bring the denominations closer together.

Many people in the West have turned to new religions or movements, or to religions whose origins are in the East. A large number of people have sought fulfilment in the teachings of Asian religions. Some of these people have been attracted to Zen, a form of Buddhism that emphasises meditation. Others follow the teachings of Hinduism. Islam has also gained many followers in the Western world.

Within Christianity, a movement called charismatic Christianity has attracted millions of followers.

The movement began with the founding of Pentecostalism in the United States in 1901. Pentecostalism is a highly emotional form of religious worship and behaviour that emphasise praying. Christian fundamentalism is a conservative religious movement that has had great social and political influence in the United States. Christian fundamentalist leaders include such television evangelists as Jerry Falwell and Pat Robertson. Islam and Judaism also have developed strong fundamentalist movements since the mid-1900's, both in the West and in the Middle East.

Some Westerners have turned to other kinds of beliefs or faiths.

For example, some people have been attracted to the occult--mysterious forms of supernatural teachings, such as astrology and spiritualism. Astrology is based on the belief that the planets and other heavenly bodies influence human affairs. Spiritualists believe that it is possible to communicate with the spirits of the dead.

Contributor: Walter Holden Capps, Ph.D., Prof. of Religious Studies, Univ. of California, Santa Barbara.

Questions

How long have people practised some form of religion?

What is the Pentateuch? The Koran? The Five Classics and Four Books? Who founded Buddhism? Islam? What is charismatic Christianity? What are the doctrines of reincarnation and karma? What are some reasons people practice religion? How do monotheistic, polytheistic, and henotheistic religions differ? What is the theory of animism? Who is the most important Shinto deity?

What is the most common religious ritual?